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In the present tutorial, I show an introductory text analysis of a ABC-news news headlines dataset. I will have a look to the most common words therein present and run a sentiment analysis on those headlines by taking advantage of the following sentiment lexicons:
The NRC sentiment lexicon from Saif Mohammad and Peter Turney categorizes words into categories of positive, negative, anger, anticipation, disgust, fear joy, sadness, surprise and trust.
The Bing sentiment lexicon from Bing Liu and others categorizes words into positive or negative sentiment category.
The AFINN sentiment lexicon from Finn Arup Nielsen assigns words with a score from -5 to 5, with negative scores indicating negative sentiment and positive scores indicating positive sentiment.
For more information about those sentiment lexicons, see references listed out at the bottom.
Packages
I am going to take advantage of the following R packages.
suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(stringr)) suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(dplyr)) suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(tidytext)) suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(tidyr)) suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(textdata)) suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(widyr)) suppressPackageStartupMessages(library(ggplot2))
Packages versions are herein listed.
packages <- c("stringr", "dplyr", "tidytext", "tidyr", "textdata", "widyr", "ggplot2")
version <- lapply(packages, packageVersion)
version_c <- do.call(c, version)
data.frame(packages=packages, version = as.character(version_c))
## packages version
## 1 stringr 1.4.0
## 2 dplyr 0.8.4
## 3 tidytext 0.2.2
## 4 tidyr 1.0.2
## 5 textdata 0.3.0
## 6 widyr 0.1.2
## 7 ggplot2 3.2.1
Running on Windows-10 the following R language version.
R.version ## _ ## platform x86_64-w64-mingw32 ## arch x86_64 ## os mingw32 ## system x86_64, mingw32 ## status ## major 3 ## minor 5.3 ## year 2019 ## month 03 ## day 11 ## svn rev 76217 ## language R ## version.string R version 3.5.3 (2019-03-11) ## nickname Great Truth
Note
Before running this code, make sure to have downloaded the lexicon of the sentiments lexicons by executing the following operation:
get_sentiments("nrc")
get_sentiments("bing")
get_sentiments("afinn")
and accepting all prescriptions as asked by the interactive menu showing up.
Getting Data
I then download our news dataset containing millions of headlines from:
“https://www.kaggle.com/therohk/million-headlines/downloads/million-headlines.zip/7”
Its uncompression produces the abcnews-date-text.csv file. I load it into the news_data dataset and have a look at.
news_data <- read.csv("abcnews-date-text.csv", header = TRUE, stringsAsFactors = FALSE)
dim(news_data)
## [1] 1103663 2
head(news_data)
## publish_date headline_text
## 1 20030219 aba decides against community broadcasting licence
## 2 20030219 act fire witnesses must be aware of defamation
## 3 20030219 a g calls for infrastructure protection summit
## 4 20030219 air nz staff in aust strike for pay rise
## 5 20030219 air nz strike to affect australian travellers
## 6 20030219 ambitious olsson wins triple jump
tail(news_data)
## publish_date headline_text
## 1103658 20171231 stunning images from the sydney to hobart yacht
## 1103659 20171231 the ashes smiths warners near miss liven up boxing day test
## 1103660 20171231 timelapse: brisbanes new year fireworks
## 1103661 20171231 what 2017 meant to the kids of australia
## 1103662 20171231 what the papodopoulos meeting may mean for ausus
## 1103663 20171231 who is george papadopoulos the former trump campaign aide
Token Analysis
It is time to extract the tokens from our dataset. Select the column named as headline_text and unnesting the word tokens determine the following.
news_df <- news_data %>% select(headline_text) news_tokens <- news_df %>% unnest_tokens(word, headline_text) head(news_tokens, 10) ## word ## 1 aba ## 1.1 decides ## 1.2 against ## 1.3 community ## 1.4 broadcasting ## 1.5 licence ## 2 act ## 2.1 fire ## 2.2 witnesses ## 2.3 must tail(news_tokens, 10) ## word ## 1103662.7 ausus ## 1103663 who ## 1103663.1 is ## 1103663.2 george ## 1103663.3 papadopoulos ## 1103663.4 the ## 1103663.5 former ## 1103663.6 trump ## 1103663.7 campaign ## 1103663.8 aide
It is interesting to generate and inspect a table reporting how many times each token shows up within the headlines and its proportion with respect the total.
news_tokens_count <- news_tokens %>% count(word, sort = TRUE) %>% mutate(proportion = n / sum(n))
The top-10 words which appear most.
head(news_tokens_count, 10) ## # A tibble: 10 x 3 ## word n proportion ## <chr> <int> <dbl> ## 1 to 214201 0.0303 ## 2 in 135981 0.0192 ## 3 for 130239 0.0184 ## 4 of 80759 0.0114 ## 5 on 73037 0.0103 ## 6 over 50306 0.00711 ## 7 the 49810 0.00704 ## 8 police 35984 0.00509 ## 9 at 31723 0.00449 ## 10 with 29676 0.00420
And the ones which appear less frequently:
tail(news_tokens_count, 10) ## # A tibble: 10 x 3 ## word n proportion ## <chr> <int> <dbl> ## 1 zweli 1 0.000000141 ## 2 zwitkowsky 1 0.000000141 ## 3 zydelig 1 0.000000141 ## 4 zygar 1 0.000000141 ## 5 zygiefs 1 0.000000141 ## 6 zylvester 1 0.000000141 ## 7 zynga 1 0.000000141 ## 8 zyngier 1 0.000000141 ## 9 zz 1 0.000000141 ## 10 zzz 1 0.000000141
There is an issue in having doing that way. The issue is that there are words which do not have relevant role in easing the sentiment analysis, the so called stop words. Herein below the stop words wihin our dataset are shown.
data(stop_words) head(stop_words, 10) ## # A tibble: 10 x 2 ## word lexicon ## <chr> <chr> ## 1 a SMART ## 2 a's SMART ## 3 able SMART ## 4 about SMART ## 5 above SMART ## 6 according SMART ## 7 accordingly SMART ## 8 across SMART ## 9 actually SMART ## 10 after SMART
To remove stop words as required, we take advantage of the anti_join operation.
news_tokens_no_sp <- news_tokens %>% anti_join(stop_words) head(news_tokens_no_sp, 10) ## word ## 1 aba ## 2 decides ## 3 community ## 4 broadcasting ## 5 licence ## 6 act ## 7 fire ## 8 witnesses ## 9 aware ## 10 defamation
Then, counting news tokens again after having removed the stop words.
news_tokens_count <- news_tokens_no_sp %>% count(word, sort = TRUE) %>% mutate(proportion = n / sum(n)) head(news_tokens_count, 10) ## # A tibble: 10 x 3 ## word n proportion ## <chr> <int> <dbl> ## 1 police 35984 0.00673 ## 2 govt 16923 0.00317 ## 3 court 16380 0.00306 ## 4 council 16343 0.00306 ## 5 interview 15025 0.00281 ## 6 fire 13910 0.00260 ## 7 nsw 12912 0.00242 ## 8 australia 12353 0.00231 ## 9 plan 12307 0.00230 ## 10 water 11874 0.00222 tail(news_tokens_count) ## # A tibble: 6 x 3 ## word n proportion ## <chr> <int> <dbl> ## 1 zygiefs 1 0.000000187 ## 2 zylvester 1 0.000000187 ## 3 zynga 1 0.000000187 ## 4 zyngier 1 0.000000187 ## 5 zz 1 0.000000187 ## 6 zzz 1 0.000000187
Then, I filtering out tokens having more than 8,000 counts.
news_token_over8000 <- news_tokens_count %>% filter(n > 8000) %>% mutate(word = reorder(word, n)) nrow(news_token_over8000) ## [1] 32 head(news_token_over8000, 10) ## # A tibble: 10 x 3 ## word n proportion ## <fct> <int> <dbl> ## 1 police 35984 0.00673 ## 2 govt 16923 0.00317 ## 3 court 16380 0.00306 ## 4 council 16343 0.00306 ## 5 interview 15025 0.00281 ## 6 fire 13910 0.00260 ## 7 nsw 12912 0.00242 ## 8 australia 12353 0.00231 ## 9 plan 12307 0.00230 ## 10 water 11874 0.00222 tail(news_token_over8000, 10) ## # A tibble: 10 x 3 ## word n proportion ## <fct> <int> <dbl> ## 1 day 8818 0.00165 ## 2 hospital 8815 0.00165 ## 3 car 8690 0.00163 ## 4 coast 8411 0.00157 ## 5 calls 8401 0.00157 ## 6 win 8315 0.00156 ## 7 woman 8213 0.00154 ## 8 killed 8129 0.00152 ## 9 accused 8094 0.00151 ## 10 world 8087 0.00151
It is interesting to show the proportion as per-thousands by means of an histogram plot.
news_token_over8000 %>% ggplot(aes(word, proportion*1000, fill=ceiling(proportion*1000))) + geom_col() + xlab(NULL) + coord_flip() + theme(legend.position = "none")
News Sentiment Analysis
In this paragraph, I focus on each single headline to evaluate its specific sentiment as determined by each lexicon. Hence the output shall determine if each specific headline has got positive or negative sentiment.
head(news_df, 10) ## headline_text ## 1 aba decides against community broadcasting licence ## 2 act fire witnesses must be aware of defamation ## 3 a g calls for infrastructure protection summit ## 4 air nz staff in aust strike for pay rise ## 5 air nz strike to affect australian travellers ## 6 ambitious olsson wins triple jump ## 7 antic delighted with record breaking barca ## 8 aussie qualifier stosur wastes four memphis match ## 9 aust addresses un security council over iraq ## 10 australia is locked into war timetable opp
I will analyse only the first 1000 headlines just for computational time reasons. The token list of such is as follows.
news_df_subset <- news_df[1:1000,,drop=FALSE]
tkn_l <- apply(news_df_subset, 1, function(x) { data.frame(headline_text=x, stringsAsFactors = FALSE) %>% unnest_tokens(word, headline_text)})
Removing the stop words from the token list.
single_news_tokens <- lapply(tkn_l, function(x) {anti_join(x, stop_words)})
str(single_news_tokens, list.len = 5)
## List of 1000
## $ 1 :'data.frame': 5 obs. of 1 variable:
## ..$ word: chr [1:5] "aba" "decides" "community" "broadcasting" ...
## $ 2 :'data.frame': 5 obs. of 1 variable:
## ..$ word: chr [1:5] "act" "fire" "witnesses" "aware" ...
## $ 3 :'data.frame': 4 obs. of 1 variable:
## ..$ word: chr [1:4] "calls" "infrastructure" "protection" "summit"
## $ 4 :'data.frame': 7 obs. of 1 variable:
## ..$ word: chr [1:7] "air" "nz" "staff" "aust" ...
## $ 5 :'data.frame': 6 obs. of 1 variable:
## ..$ word: chr [1:6] "air" "nz" "strike" "affect" ...
## [list output truncated]
As we can see, to each headline is associated a list of tokens. The sentiment of a headline is computed as based on the sum of positive/negative score of each token of.
single_news_tokens[[1]] ## word ## 1 aba ## 2 decides ## 3 community ## 4 broadcasting ## 5 licence
Bing lexicon
In this paragraph, the computation of the sentiment associated to the tokens list is shown for Bing lexicon. I first define a function named as compute_sentiment() whose purpose is to output the positiveness score of a specific headline.
compute_sentiment <- function(d) {
if (nrow(d) == 0) {
return(NA)
}
neg_score <- d %>% filter(sentiment=="negative") %>% nrow()
pos_score <- d %>% filter(sentiment=="positive") %>% nrow()
pos_score - neg_score
}
The inner join on bing lexicon of each single headline tokens list is given as input to the compute_sentiment() function to determine the sentiment score of each specific headline.
sentiments_bing <- get_sentiments("bing")
str(sentiments_bing)
## Classes 'tbl_df', 'tbl' and 'data.frame': 6786 obs. of 2 variables:
## $ word : chr "2-faces" "abnormal" "abolish" "abominable" ...
## $ sentiment: chr "negative" "negative" "negative" "negative" ...
single_news_sentiment_bing <- sapply(single_news_tokens, function(x) { x %>% inner_join(sentiments_bing) %>% compute_sentiment()})
The result is a vector of integers each element value at i-th position is the sentiment associated to the i-th news
str(single_news_sentiment_bing) ## Named int [1:1000] NA -1 1 -1 -1 2 0 NA NA NA ... ## - attr(*, "names")= chr [1:1000] "1" "2" "3" "4" ...
Here is the summary, please note that:
- the median is negative
- NA's show up
summary(single_news_sentiment_bing) ## Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. NA's ## -3.000 -1.000 -1.000 -0.475 1.000 2.000 520
Collecting the resulting in a data frame as follows.
single_news_sentiment_bing_df <- data.frame(headline_text=news_df_subset$headline_text, score = single_news_sentiment_bing) head(single_news_sentiment_bing_df, 10) ## headline_text score ## 1 aba decides against community broadcasting licence NA ## 2 act fire witnesses must be aware of defamation -1 ## 3 a g calls for infrastructure protection summit 1 ## 4 air nz staff in aust strike for pay rise -1 ## 5 air nz strike to affect australian travellers -1 ## 6 ambitious olsson wins triple jump 2 ## 7 antic delighted with record breaking barca 0 ## 8 aussie qualifier stosur wastes four memphis match NA ## 9 aust addresses un security council over iraq NA ## 10 australia is locked into war timetable opp NA
NRC lexicon
In this paragraph, the computation of the sentiment associated to the tokens list is shown for NRC lexicon. With respect the previous analysis based on bing lexicon, some more pre-processing is needed as explained in what follows. First we get the NRC sentiment lexicon and see what are the sentiments threin present.
sentiments_nrc <- get_sentiments("nrc")
(unique_sentiments_nrc <- unique(sentiments_nrc$sentiment))
## [1] "trust" "fear" "negative" "sadness" "anger" "surprise"
## [7] "positive" "disgust" "joy" "anticipation"
To have as output a positive/negative sentiment result, I define a mapping of abovelisted sentiments to a positive/negative string result as follows.
compute_pos_neg_sentiments_nrc <- function(the_sentiments_nrc) {
s <- unique(the_sentiments_nrc$sentiment)
df_sentiments <- data.frame(sentiment = s,
mapped_sentiment = c("positive", "negative", "negative", "negative",
"negative", "positive", "positive", "negative",
"positive", "positive"))
ss <- sentiments_nrc %>% inner_join(df_sentiments)
the_sentiments_nrc$sentiment <- ss$mapped_sentiment
the_sentiments_nrc
}
nrc_sentiments_pos_neg_scale <- compute_pos_neg_sentiments_nrc(sentiments_nrc)
Above function is used to produce the single headline text sentiment results. Such result is given as input to the compute_sentiment() function.
single_news_sentiment_nrc <- sapply(single_news_tokens, function(x) { x %>% inner_join(nrc_sentiments_pos_neg_scale) %>% compute_sentiment()})
str(single_news_sentiment_nrc)
## Named int [1:1000] 1 -4 1 2 -2 2 4 NA 5 -2 ...
## - attr(*, "names")= chr [1:1000] "1" "2" "3" "4" ...
Here is the summary, please note that:
- the median is equal to zero
- NA's show up
summary(single_news_sentiment_nrc) ## Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. NA's ## -9.0000 -2.0000 0.0000 -0.3742 2.0000 9.0000 257 single_news_sentiment_nrc_df <- data.frame(headline_text=news_df_subset$headline_text, score = single_news_sentiment_nrc) head(single_news_sentiment_nrc_df, 10) ## headline_text score ## 1 aba decides against community broadcasting licence 1 ## 2 act fire witnesses must be aware of defamation -4 ## 3 a g calls for infrastructure protection summit 1 ## 4 air nz staff in aust strike for pay rise 2 ## 5 air nz strike to affect australian travellers -2 ## 6 ambitious olsson wins triple jump 2 ## 7 antic delighted with record breaking barca 4 ## 8 aussie qualifier stosur wastes four memphis match NA ## 9 aust addresses un security council over iraq 5 ## 10 australia is locked into war timetable opp -2
AFINN lexicon
In this paragraph, the computation of the sentiment associated to the tokens list is shown for AFINN lexicon.
sentiments_afinn <- get_sentiments("afinn")
colnames(sentiments_afinn) <- c("word", "sentiment")
str(sentiments_afinn)
## Classes 'spec_tbl_df', 'tbl_df', 'tbl' and 'data.frame': 2477 obs. of 2 variables:
## $ word : chr "abandon" "abandoned" "abandons" "abducted" ...
## $ sentiment: num -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -3 -3 -3 ...
## - attr(*, "spec")=
## .. cols(
## .. word = col_character(),
## .. value = col_double()
## .. )
As we can see, the afinn lexicon provides a score for each token. We just need to sum up each headline tokens score to obtain the sentiment score of the headline under analysis.
single_news_sentiment_afinn_df <- lapply(single_news_tokens, function(x) { x %>% inner_join(sentiments_afinn)})
single_news_sentiment_afinn <- sapply(single_news_sentiment_afinn_df, function(x) {
ifelse(nrow(x) > 0, sum(x$sentiment), NA)
})
str(single_news_sentiment_afinn)
## Named num [1:1000] NA -2 NA -2 -1 6 3 NA NA -2 ...
## - attr(*, "names")= chr [1:1000] "1" "2" "3" "4" ...
Here is the summary, please note that:
- the median is negative
- NA's show up
summary(single_news_sentiment_afinn) ## Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max. NA's ## -9.000 -3.000 -2.000 -1.148 1.000 7.000 508 single_news_sentiment_afinn_df <- data.frame(headline_text=news_df_subset$headline_text, score = single_news_sentiment_afinn) head(single_news_sentiment_afinn_df, 10) ## headline_text score ## 1 aba decides against community broadcasting licence NA ## 2 act fire witnesses must be aware of defamation -2 ## 3 a g calls for infrastructure protection summit NA ## 4 air nz staff in aust strike for pay rise -2 ## 5 air nz strike to affect australian travellers -1 ## 6 ambitious olsson wins triple jump 6 ## 7 antic delighted with record breaking barca 3 ## 8 aussie qualifier stosur wastes four memphis match NA ## 9 aust addresses un security council over iraq NA ## 10 australia is locked into war timetable opp -2
Comparing results
Having obtained for each news three potential results as sentiment evaluation, we would like to compare their congruency.
As congruence we mean the fact that all three lexicons express the same positive or negative result, in other words the same score sign indipendently from its magnitude. If NA values are present, the congruence shall be computed until at least two non NA values are available, otherwise is equal to NA.
Furthermore we compute the final news sentiment as based upon the sum of each lexicon sentiment score.
compute_congruence <- function(x,y,z) {
v <- c(sign(x), sign(y), sign(z))
# if only one lexicon reports the score, we cannot check for congruence
if (sum(is.na(v)) >= 2) {
return (NA)
}
# removing NA and zero value
v <- na.omit(v)
v_sum <- sum(v)
abs(v_sum) == length(v)
}
compute_final_sentiment <- function(x,y,z) {
if (is.na(x) && is.na(y) && is.na(z)) {
return (NA)
}
s <- sum(x, y, z, na.rm=TRUE)
# positive sentiments have score strictly greater than zero
# negative sentiments have score strictly less than zero
# neutral sentiments have score equal to zero
ifelse(s > 0, "positive", ifelse(s < 0, "negative", "neutral"))
}
news_sentiments_results <- data.frame(headline_text = news_df_subset$headline_text,
bing_score = single_news_sentiment_bing,
nrc_score = single_news_sentiment_nrc,
afinn_score = single_news_sentiment_afinn,
stringsAsFactors = FALSE)
news_sentiments_results <- news_sentiments_results %>% rowwise() %>%
mutate(final_sentiment = compute_final_sentiment(bing_score, nrc_score, afinn_score),
congruence = compute_congruence(bing_score, nrc_score, afinn_score))
head(news_sentiments_results, 40)
## Source: local data frame [40 x 6]
## Groups: <by row>
##
## # A tibble: 40 x 6
## headline_text bing_score nrc_score afinn_score final_sentiment congruence
## <chr> <int> <int> <dbl> <chr> <lgl>
## 1 aba decides against community broadcas~ NA 1 NA positive NA
## 2 act fire witnesses must be aware of de~ -1 -4 -2 negative TRUE
## 3 a g calls for infrastructure protectio~ 1 1 NA positive TRUE
## 4 air nz staff in aust strike for pay ri~ -1 2 -2 negative FALSE
## 5 air nz strike to affect australian tra~ -1 -2 -1 negative TRUE
## 6 ambitious olsson wins triple jump 2 2 6 positive TRUE
## 7 antic delighted with record breaking b~ 0 4 3 positive FALSE
## 8 aussie qualifier stosur wastes four me~ NA NA NA <NA> NA
## 9 aust addresses un security council ove~ NA 5 NA positive NA
## 10 australia is locked into war timetable~ NA -2 -2 negative TRUE
## # ... with 30 more rows
Is would be useful to replace the numeric score with same {negative, neutral, positive} scale.
replace_score_with_sentiment <- function(v_score) {
v_score[v_score > 0] <- "positive"
v_score[v_score < 0] <- "negative"
v_score[v_score == 0] <- "neutral"
v_score
}
news_sentiments_results$bing_score <- replace_score_with_sentiment(news_sentiments_results$bing_score)
news_sentiments_results$nrc_score <- replace_score_with_sentiment(news_sentiments_results$nrc_score)
news_sentiments_results$afinn_score <- replace_score_with_sentiment(news_sentiments_results$afinn_score)
news_sentiments_results[,2:5] <- lapply(news_sentiments_results[,2:5], as.factor)
head(news_sentiments_results, 40)
## Source: local data frame [40 x 6]
## Groups: <by row>
##
## # A tibble: 40 x 6
## headline_text bing_score nrc_score afinn_score final_sentiment congruence
## <chr> <fct> <fct> <fct> <fct> <lgl>
## 1 aba decides against community broadcas~ <NA> positive <NA> positive NA
## 2 act fire witnesses must be aware of de~ negative negative negative negative TRUE
## 3 a g calls for infrastructure protectio~ positive positive <NA> positive TRUE
## 4 air nz staff in aust strike for pay ri~ negative positive negative negative FALSE
## 5 air nz strike to affect australian tra~ negative negative negative negative TRUE
## 6 ambitious olsson wins triple jump positive positive positive positive TRUE
## 7 antic delighted with record breaking b~ neutral positive positive positive FALSE
## 8 aussie qualifier stosur wastes four me~ <NA> <NA> <NA> <NA> NA
## 9 aust addresses un security council ove~ <NA> positive <NA> positive NA
## 10 australia is locked into war timetable~ <NA> negative negative negative TRUE
## # ... with 30 more rows
Tabularizations of each lexicon resulting sentiment and final sentiments are herein shown.
table(news_sentiments_results$bing_score, news_sentiments_results$final_sentiment, dnn = c("bing", "final"))
## final
## bing negative neutral positive
## negative 278 15 14
## neutral 16 6 11
## positive 6 7 127
table(news_sentiments_results$nrc_score, news_sentiments_results$final_sentiment, dnn = c("nrc", "final"))
## final
## nrc negative neutral positive
## negative 353 10 4
## neutral 18 13 6
## positive 25 16 298
table(news_sentiments_results$afinn_score, news_sentiments_results$final_sentiment, dnn = c("afinn", "final"))
## final
## afinn negative neutral positive
## negative 326 10 12
## neutral 3 1 6
## positive 4 9 121
Tabularization of congruence and final sentiments is herein shown.
table(news_sentiments_results$congruence, news_sentiments_results$final_sentiment, dnn = c("congruence", "final"))
## final
## congruence negative neutral positive
## FALSE 67 33 45
## TRUE 292 0 132
Conclusions
We analyzed the news headlines to determine their sentiments while taking advantage of three sentiments lexicons. We show some basics of the methodoloy for such purpose. We also had the chance to compare the results obtained across all three lexicons and set forth a final sentiment evaluation. If you are interested in understanding much more about text analysis, see ref. [4].
References
[1] NRC sentiment lexicon
[2] BING sentiment lexicon
[3] AFINN sentiment lexicon
[4] Text mining with R
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