Approximating small probabilities using importance sampling

Solving directly

We can simulate it directly:

set.seed(2019)
x <- rnorm(10000)
qs <- quantile(x, c(0.25, 0.75))
iqr <- qs[2] - qs[1] # or IQR()
lwr <- qs[1] - 2.5*iqr
upr <- qs[2] + 2.5*iqr
indices <- x < lwr | x > upr
mean(indices)
## [1] 1e-04

So based on 10,000 simulations we believe the answer is around 1/10,000 = 0.01%. Because only one of the simulated values were outside the 2.5 IQR. Not too trustworthy…

Importance sampling

So we are trying to estimate a tail probability. What if we instead of simulating directly from the distribution of interest, we could simulate from some other distribution with more mass in the area of interest and then reweight the sample? That is the idea behind importance sampling.

So let us sample from a uniform distribution between -10 and 10.

set.seed(2019)
z <- runif(2500, min = -10, max = 10)

We make a smaller sample to find limits (they are based on quartiles, which is fairly easy to estimate accurately by simulation):

qs <- quantile(rnorm(2500), c(0.25, 0.75))
iqr <- qs[2] - qs[1] # or IQR()
lwr <- qs[1] - 2.5*iqr
upr <- qs[2] + 2.5*iqr

Now, we do not count 0s (not outlier) and 1s (outlier) but instead consider importance weights, \(w(z) = f_X(z) / f_Y(z)\), where \(f_X(z)\) is the probability density function for a standard normal distribution and \(f_Y(z)\) is the probability density function for a uniform distribution on \([-10, 10]\).

indices <- z < lwr | z > upr
mean(indices) # Now, a much larger fraction is in the area of interest
## [1] 0.5752
importance_weight <- dnorm(z) / dunif(z, min = -10, max = 10)
sum(importance_weight[indices]) / length(indices)
## [1] 3.810393e-05

So based on 2,500 + 2,500 simulations our estimate is now 0.0038104%.

It can (easily) be shown that the true answer is 0.005%.

Comparing approaches

We do both of the above 1,000 times to inspect the behaviour:

The reason that the density estimate for the direct method looks strange is because it only samples a few different values, and often does not get any outliers:

table(direct)
## direct
##     0 1e-04 2e-04 3e-04 4e-04 5e-04 
##   570   337    78     9     5     1

The methods’ summaries are calculated:

As seen, on average both give the same answer (as expected), but the importance sampling provides a lower standard error.