[This article was first published on The 20% Statistician, and kindly contributed to R-bloggers]. (You can report issue about the content on this page here)
Want to share your content on R-bloggers? click here if you have a blog, or here if you don't.
< !--[if gte mso 9]>< xml> < o:OfficeDocumentSettings> < o:AllowPNG/> < ![endif]-->Want to share your content on R-bloggers? click here if you have a blog, or here if you don't.
< !--[if gte mso 9]>< xml> < w:WordDocument> < w:View>Normal < w:Zoom>0 < w:TrackMoves/> < w:TrackFormatting/> < w:DoNotShowPropertyChanges/> < w:PunctuationKerning/> < w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> < w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false < w:IgnoreMixedContent>false < w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false < w:DoNotPromoteQF/> < w:LidThemeOther>EN-US < w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE < w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE < w:Compatibility> < w:BreakWrappedTables/> < w:SnapToGridInCell/> < w:WrapTextWithPunct/> < w:UseAsianBreakRules/> < w:DontGrowAutofit/> < w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> < w:EnableOpenTypeKerning/> < w:DontFlipMirrorIndents/> < w:OverrideTableStyleHps/> < m:mathPr> < m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> < m:brkBin m:val="before"/> < m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> < m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> < m:dispDef/> < m:lMargin m:val="0"/> < m:rMargin m:val="0"/> < m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> < m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> < m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> < m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> < ![endif]-->< !--[if gte mso 9]>< xml> < w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="false" DefSemiHidden="false" DefQFormat="false" DefPriority="99" LatentStyleCount="371"> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="0" QFormat="true" Name="Normal"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" QFormat="true" Name="heading 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 7"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 8"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index 9"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 8"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 9"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Normal Indent"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="footnote text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="annotation text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="header"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="footer"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="index heading"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="caption"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="table of figures"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="envelope address"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="envelope return"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="footnote reference"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="annotation reference"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="line number"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="page number"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="endnote reference"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="endnote text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="table of authorities"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="macro"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toa heading"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Bullet"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Number"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Bullet 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Bullet 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Bullet 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Bullet 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Number 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Number 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Number 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Number 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Closing"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Signature"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text Indent"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Continue"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Continue 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Continue 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Continue 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="List Continue 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Message Header"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Salutation"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Date"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text First Indent"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Note Heading"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text Indent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Body Text Indent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Block Text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Hyperlink"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="FollowedHyperlink"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Document Map"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Plain Text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="E-mail Signature"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Top of Form"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Normal (Web)"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Acronym"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Address"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Cite"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Code"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Definition"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Keyboard"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Preformatted"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Sample"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Typewriter"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="HTML Variable"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Normal Table"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="annotation subject"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="No List"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Outline List 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Outline List 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Outline List 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Simple 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Simple 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Simple 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Classic 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Classic 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Classic 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Classic 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Colorful 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Colorful 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Colorful 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Columns 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Columns 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Columns 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Columns 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Columns 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 7"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Grid 8"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 7"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table List 8"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table 3D effects 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table 3D effects 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table 3D effects 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Contemporary"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Elegant"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Professional"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Subtle 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Subtle 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Web 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Web 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Web 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Balloon Text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Table Theme"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true" Name="List Paragraph"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Quote"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> < w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> < ![endif]-->< !--[if gte mso 10]>< ![endif]-->
The Royal Society has decided to publish journal citations distributions. This makes sense. The journal impact factor is a single number trying to summarize a distribution, but it’s almost always better to plot your data. Somehave been hopeful that visualizing such distributions will make it clear what a troublesome statistic the journal impact factor is, and hope that other journals will also be open with their data.
I want to point out that all this data is readily available to anyone who has access to Scopus, and at the bottom of this post I’ll share the R code to create these plots yourself.
Go to Scopus, and search for any journal you’d like. Here, I’ll illustrate this process by a search for the journal Psychological Science, which has ISSN number 0956-7976. You can search for any range of years, but Scopus will only allow you to export 2000 cases at once. I limited this search to issues from 2010-2015.Due to copyright reasons, I cannot share the Scopus data I downloaded.
Then, select all results, and export ‘all available information’ as a .csv file, as illustrated in the animation below.
Now you have the data, plotting the citations is straightforward, and can be done with the code below (the plots in this blog posts look a bit different then the output in the code, but the data is the same). For example, here is the distribution of citations for Psychological Science for the years 2010-2015. The tail is so long, that I cut off the x-axis at 200 citations. Three (most notably, Simonsohn, Nelson, & Simmons, 2011, with 662 citations) papers are cited more than 200 times.
The data is clearly skewed, and obviously papers are cited more often, as the years go by. The differences between the means:
Year Mean
1 2010 34.551724
2 2011 25.329167
3 2012 18.460465
4 2013 12.055016
5 2014 6.176471
6 2015 1.814815
and medians:
Year Median
1 2010 25
2 2011 17
3 2012 15
4 2013 8
5 2014 4
6 2015 1
are obvious. You would probably exclude extreme outliers when analyzing your own data, but journals obviously like to keep them in because they boost the impact factor, even though they are not representative.
Feel free to play around with the script, and link to your plots in the comments below, or tweet them to me at @Lakens.
To leave a comment for the author, please follow the link and comment on their blog: The 20% Statistician.
R-bloggers.com offers daily e-mail updates about R news and tutorials about learning R and many other topics. Click here if you're looking to post or find an R/data-science job.
Want to share your content on R-bloggers? click here if you have a blog, or here if you don't.